Basic Definitions and Simple Tests Contents Define the following terms: i. Soil Mechanics ii. Soil Engineering iii. Geotechnical Engineering 1 Describe the origin of soil and its formation 2 Recall scope and limitation of Soil Engineering 3 Recall different types of soil deposits 5 Recall the following Basic Properties of Soil\ 6 Differentiate between the Mass density and Weight density of Soil 8 Recall the Phase Properties of Soil: i. Water content of the soil ii. Void ratio of the soil iii. Porosity of the soil 10 Describe the relationships between among of the following: i. Degree of Saturation, Void Ratio, Water Content, and Specific Gravity ii. Bulk Density, Void Ratio, and Specific Gravity iii. Bulk Density, Dry Density, and Water Content 12 Recall the determination of specific gravity of Soil 14 Recall different methods for determination of water content of the soil 15 Recall the determination of density of Soil 16

Define the following terms: i. Soil Mechanics ii. Soil Engineering iii. Geotechnical Engineering

i. Soil Mechanics: Soil mechanics is the study of the physical properties and behaviour of soil. It is the branch of soil science that examines the mechanical properties of soil, including how soil responds to loading and deformation. Soil mechanics is used to understand how soil behaves under different conditions and how it can be used for construction and engineering projects. ii. Soil Engineering: Soil engineering is the application of soil mechanics to the design and construction of foundations, earthworks, and other structures. It involves the analysis and design of soil structures, including foundations, retaining walls, slopes, and embankments. Soil engineers use principles of soil mechanics to determine the suitability of soil for a given project and to design foundations and other structures that will safely support the loads they will be subjected to. iii. Geotechnical Engineering: Geotechnical engineering is the branch of civil engineering that deals with the engineering behaviour of earth materials. It involves the study of soil and rock mechanics, and the application of this knowledge to the design and construction of foundations, slopes, retaining walls, tunnels, and other structures. Geotechnical engineers use principles of soil mechanics, rock mechanics, and engineering geology to investigate subsurface conditions and design foundations, slopes, and other structures that will safely support the loads they will be subjected to. This includes site investigation, laboratory testing, and numerical modelling.

Describe the origin of soil and its formation

Soil is a natural resource that is composed of a mixture of minerals, organic matter, water, and air. The origin of soil and its formation is a complex process that is influenced by several factors such as climate, topography, and the parent materials from which the soil is formed. The formation of soil begins with the weathering of rocks. Weathering is the physical and chemical breakdown of rocks by natural forces such as water, wind, and temperature changes. The broken pieces of rock that result from weathering are called regolith. Regolith can be further broken down into smaller pieces by erosion, which is the movement of soil and rock materials by water, wind, or ice. After weathering and erosion, the materials that make up the soil begin to develop. This process is called pedogenesis. Pedogenesis is the process by which soil develops from parent materials. The parent materials can be rock, organic matter, or a combination of both. The process of pedogenesis is influenced by climate, topography, and the type of vegetation that is present. There are several factors that influence the formation of soil. Climate is an important factor because it determines the amount of precipitation and temperature that the soil is exposed to. These conditions affect the rate of weathering and the type of vegetation that can grow in the area. Topography also plays a role in soil formation because it determines the amount of sunlight, wind, and water that the soil is exposed to. This affects the rate of weathering and erosion, and the type of vegetation that can grow in the area. Finally, the parent materials from which the soil is formed also play a crucial role in determining the properties of the soil. For example, a soil that is formed from a rock such as granite will have different properties than a soil that is formed from a rock such as limestone. The type of rock also affects the rate of weathering and erosion, and the type of vegetation that can grow in the area. Overall, the formation of soil is a complex and ongoing process that is influenced by climate, topography, and the parent materials from which the soil is formed. It is a crucial natural resource, which supports the growth of vegetation, and is the foundation of the engineering and construction projects.

Recall scope and limitation of Soil Engineering

Soil Engineering is a branch of civil engineering that focuses on the analysis and design of soil structures, including foundations, retaining walls, slopes, and embankments. The scope of soil engineering includes the following:
  1. Site Investigation: Soil engineers conduct site investigations to determine the subsurface conditions of a proposed construction site. This includes drilling and excavating test pits, and collecting samples of soil and rock to be analysed in the laboratory.
  2. Laboratory Testing: Soil engineers use laboratory testing to determine the physical and mechanical properties of soil and rock. This includes tests such as the California Bearing Ratio (CBR), Unconfined Compression Test (UCT), and the Standard Penetration Test (SPT).
  3. Analysis and Design: Soil engineers use the data collected from site investigations and laboratory testing to analyse and design soil structures. This includes the design of foundations, retaining walls, slopes, and embankments.
  4. Construction Inspection: Soil engineers inspect the construction of soil structures to ensure that the work is being carried out in accordance with the design.
  5. Ground Improvement: Soil engineers use various techniques to improve the soil conditions for construction such as soil stabilisation, compaction, and drainage.
However, soil engineering also has some limitations:
  1. Complexity: Soil is a complex material that can vary greatly in its properties, even within a small area. This makes it difficult to predict how soil will behave under certain conditions.
  2. Lack of data: Site investigations and laboratory testing can only provide a limited amount of data about the subsurface conditions. This can make it difficult to predict how soil will behave under certain conditions.
  3. Uncertainty: Soil engineering relies on mathematical models to predict how soil will behave under certain conditions. However, these models are based on assumptions, which can introduce uncertainty into the analysis and design.
  4. Limited applicability: Soil engineering is limited to the design and construction of structures on land. It does not apply to offshore structures or structures in other extreme environments such as deep sea.
  5. Environmental factors: Soil engineering does not take into account the environmental factors that affect soil properties like high water table, groundwater flow and soil contamination.
In summary, Soil Engineering plays a crucial role in the analysis and design of soil structures, but it also has limitations. It is important to be aware of these limitations and to take them into account when conducting site investigations, laboratory testing, analysis, and design.

Recall different types of soil deposits

Soil is a complex mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and organisms that support life. The different types of soil deposits can be classified based on their characteristics, such as texture, structure, color, and drainage. Some common types of soil deposits include:
  • Sandy soil: Sandy soil is composed mostly of small, coarse particles and has low fertility. It is well-drained and dries quickly after rain.
  • Clay soil: Clay soil is composed mostly of fine particles and has high fertility. It is poorly-drained and can become compacted easily.
  • Silt soil: Silt soil is composed mostly of medium-sized particles and has moderate fertility. It is well-drained and has good water-holding capacity.
  • Peat soil: Peat soil is composed mostly of partially decomposed organic matter and has low fertility. It is poorly-drained and can become waterlogged easily.
  • Loam soil: Loam soil is composed of a mixture of sand, silt, and clay, and has high fertility. It is well-drained and has good water-holding capacity.
  • Silty clay soil: Silty clay soil is composed mostly of fine particles and has moderate fertility. It is poorly-drained and can become compacted easily.
  • Sandy clay soil: Sandy clay soil is composed mostly of small and fine particles and has low fertility. It is poorly-drained and can become compacted easily.
  • Sandy loam soil: Sandy loam soil is composed mostly of small and medium particles and has moderate fertility. It is well-drained and dries quickly after rain.
  • ALLUVIAL SOIL: Alluvial soil is a type of soil that is formed by the deposition of sediment carried by rivers and streams. It is typically found in river valleys and deltas, and is characterized by its high fertility and ability to retain water.
It’s important to note that soil type can also be affected by climate, topography, vegetation, and other factors. Additionally, the soil type can be affected by human activity such as deforestation, urbanisation, and agriculture.

Recall the following Basic Properties of Soil\

i. Mass Density of Soil: The mass density of soil, also known as bulk density, is the weight of soil per unit volume. It is typically measured in units of grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm3) or pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3). The mass density of soil can vary depending on factors such as soil type, moisture content, and compaction. A higher mass density indicates that the soil is denser and more compact, while a lower mass density indicates that the soil is less dense and more porous ρ = m/V Where: ρ = Mass density of soil (in kg/m³) m = Mass of the soil sample (in kg) V = Volume of the soil sample (in m³) ii. Weight Density of Soil: The weight density of soil is the weight of soil per unit area. It is typically measured in units of pounds per square foot (lb/ft2) or kilograms per square metre (kg/m2). The weight density of soil is directly related to the soil’s mass density and can be used to calculate the weight of soil in a given volume. γ = W/V Where: γ = Weight density of soil (in N/m³) W = Weight of the soil sample (in N or kg.m/s²) V = Volume of the soil sample (in m³) iii. Specific Gravity of Soil: Specific gravity of soil is the ratio of the density of soil to the density of water. It is a unitless number and is typically measured on a scale of 0 to 2.5. A specific gravity of 1 means that the soil has the same density as water, while a specific gravity of less than 1 means that the soil is less dense than water and a specific gravity greater than 1 means that the soil is more dense than water. Specific gravity can be used to determine the soil’s composition, as different minerals have different densities. Gs = (M2 / (M2 – M1)) / (V2 / (V2 – V1)) Where: Gs = Specific gravity of soil M1 = Mass of the empty container (in g or kg) M2 = Mass of the container with soil (in g or kg) V1 = Volume of the empty container (in ml or m³) V2 = Volume of the container with soil (in ml or m³) It’s important to note that the properties of soil mentioned above can be affected by human activity such as deforestation, urbanisation, and agriculture. Additionally, these properties can change over time due to factors such as weathering and erosion.

Differentiate between the Mass density and Weight density of Soil

Mass density is a physical property of a substance that is used to describe the amount of matter contained in a given volume. It is defined as the ratio of the mass of a substance to its volume, and is typically measured in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3). In the case of soil, the mass density would refer to the mass of the soil particles per unit volume. This value can be determined by measuring the mass of a sample of soil and then dividing that value by the volume of the soil sample. Weight density, also known as specific weight, is a physical property of a substance that is used to describe the amount of force exerted on a substance due to gravity. It is defined as the ratio of the weight of a substance to its volume, and is typically measured in newtons per cubic meter (N/m3). In the case of soil, the weight density would refer to the weight of the soil particles per unit volume, taking into account the force of gravity on the soil. This value can be determined by measuring the weight of a sample of soil and then dividing that value by the volume of the soil sample. The key difference between the two is the weight density takes into account the force of gravity, while the mass density does not. This means that the weight density of a substance will be affected by the acceleration due to gravity, while the mass density will not. For example, the weight density of soil on the surface of the Earth will be greater than the weight density of the same soil on the Moon, due to the difference in gravitational acceleration. Use the mass density and weight density of soil to calculate the total load exerted by a soil mass To calculate the total load exerted by a soil mass, we use the weight density of soil. The weight density of soil is defined as the ratio of the weight of soil to its volume. The weight of soil is calculated by multiplying the mass density of soil by the acceleration due to gravity. To determine the weight density, we can use the formula: Weight Density = Mass Density x Acceleration due to gravity Where Mass density is the mass of soil per unit volume and acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s2. After obtaining the weight density, we can use the following formula to find the total load exerted by a soil mass: Total Load = Weight Density x Volume This calculation is useful in determining the bearing capacity of soil and the settlement of foundations, as the weight density is an indicator of the compaction of soil and the total load is an indicator of the amount of force exerted on the soil. Use the mass density of soil to determine the volume of soil in a particular area To determine the volume of soil in a particular area, we use the mass density of soil. The mass density of soil is defined as the ratio of the mass of soil to its volume. By measuring the mass of soil in a particular area, we can use the mass density to determine the volume of soil in that area. To determine the mass density, we can use the formula: Mass Density = Mass of soil / Volume Once we have the mass density, we can use the following formula to find the volume of soil in a particular area: Volume = Mass of soil / Mass Density This calculation is useful in determining the quantity of soil in a certain area and also the volume changes of soil due to the construction activities and natural causes.

Recall the Phase Properties of Soil: i. Water content of the soil ii. Void ratio of the soil iii. Porosity of the soil

Water content of the soil: The water content of soil refers to the amount of water present in a soil sample, expressed as a percentage of the total weight of the soil sample. This value is important because it affects the physical properties of the soil, such as its strength and compressibility. The water content of soil can be determined through a variety of methods, including oven-drying and centrifugation. w = [(Mw / Ms) * 100%] Where: w = Water content of soil (in %) Mw = Mass of water in soil (in g or kg) Ms = Mass of dry soil (in g or kg)
  1. Void ratio of the soil: The void ratio of soil is a measure of the voids, or empty spaces, in a soil sample as a ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids. This value is important because it affects the compressibility and permeability of the soil. Void ratio can be calculated from the water content and specific gravity of the soil.
e = Vv / Vs Where: e = Void ratio of soil Vv = Volume of voids in soil Vs = Volume of solids in soil
  1. Porosity of the soil: Porosity refers to the ratio of the volume of voids in a soil sample to the total volume of the soil sample. Like void ratio, porosity affects the compressibility and permeability of the soil. Porosity can also be calculated from the water content and specific gravity of the soil.
n = Vv / Vt Where: n = Porosity of soil Vv = Volume of voids in soil Vt = Total volume of soil (including both solids and voids) All three properties, water content, void ratio, and porosity are closely related and can be calculated using the same basic data. Understanding the phase properties of soil is important in many fields such as Civil engineering, Geotechnical engineering, Agriculture, and Environmental science. These properties help engineers and scientists to predict the behavior of soil under various conditions and to design and construct appropriate structures.

Describe the relationships between among of the following: i. Degree of Saturation, Void Ratio, Water Content, and Specific Gravity ii. Bulk Density, Void Ratio, and Specific Gravity iii. Bulk Density, Dry Density, and Water Content

i. Degree of Saturation, Void Ratio, Water Content, and Specific Gravity: Degree of Saturation (S) is the ratio of the volume of water in a soil sample to the total volume of voids in that sample, expressed as a percentage. Void Ratio (e) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids in a soil sample. Water Content (w) is the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of the dry soil in a sample, expressed as a percentage. Specific Gravity (G) is the ratio of the mass of a substance to the mass of an equal volume of water. The relationships among these parameters can be expressed mathematically as: S = w / (G * e + w) e = Vv / Vs w = (Ms – Md) / Md * 100 G = Ms / (Vs * ρw) where Vv is the volume of voids, Vs is the volume of solids, Ms is the mass of soil, Md is the mass of dry soil, and ρw is the density of water. For example, if a soil sample has a water content of 20%, a void ratio of 0.5, and a specific gravity of 2.5, then its degree of saturation can be calculated as: S = 20 / (2.5 * 0.5 + 20) = 44.4% ii. Bulk Density, Void Ratio, and Specific Gravity: Bulk Density (γ) is the ratio of the mass of a soil sample to its total volume, including both solids and voids. Void Ratio (e) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids in a soil sample. Specific Gravity (G) is the ratio of the mass of a substance to the mass of an equal volume of water. The relationships among these parameters can be expressed mathematically as: γ = (Ms / Vt) e = Vv / Vs G = Ms / (Vs * ρw) where Ms is the mass of soil, Vt is the total volume of the soil sample, Vv is the volume of voids, Vs is the volume of solids, and ρw is the density of water. For example, if a soil sample has a bulk density of 1.5 g/cm³, a void ratio of 0.4, and a specific gravity of 2.7, then its volume of voids can be calculated as: Vv = e * Vs = 0.4 * Vs and its total volume can be calculated as: Vt = Vs + Vv = Vs + 0.4 * Vs = 1.4 * Vs Finally, its mass can be calculated as: Ms = γ * Vt = 1.5 * 1.4 * Vs = 2.1 * Vs and its density of solids can be calculated as: ρs = Ms / Vs = 2.1 g/cm³ iii. Bulk Density, Dry Density, and Water Content: Bulk Density (γ) is the ratio of the mass of a soil sample to its total volume, including both solids and voids. Dry Density (ρd) is the ratio of the mass of dry soil in a sample to its volume, excluding the volume of water. Water Content (w) is the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of the dry soil in a sample, expressed as a percentage.

Recall the determination of specific gravity of Soil

In soil mechanics, the specific gravity of soil is a key parameter that helps in characterizing and classifying different types of soils. There are several methods commonly used to determine the specific gravity of soil. Here are three commonly used methods:
  1. Pycnometer Method:
    • In this method, a small volume of soil is taken and dried in an oven to remove all the moisture.
    • A pycnometer, which is a container with a known volume, is filled with a liquid, usually water or a heavy liquid like kerosene, with a known specific gravity.
    • The dry soil sample is then placed in the pycnometer, and the volume of the displaced liquid is measured.
    • The specific gravity of the soil is calculated using the formula: Specific Gravity = (Weight of Oven-Dry Soil) / (Weight of Oven-Dry Soil – Weight of Displaced Liquid)
  2. Density Bottle Method:
    • In this method, a density bottle with a known volume is filled with distilled water and weighed.
    • A portion of the soil sample is then placed in an oven to remove moisture and weighed to determine its dry weight.
    • The soil sample is then put into the density bottle, and distilled water is added until the bottle is completely filled.
    • The density bottle, now containing the soil and water, is weighed again.
    • The specific gravity of the soil can be calculated using the formula: Specific Gravity = (Weight of Oven-Dry Soil) / (Weight of Oven-Dry Soil – Weight of Water)
  3. Gas Jar Method:
    • In this method, a gas jar is filled with water, and its weight is measured.
    • A known weight of oven-dried soil sample is poured into the gas jar, displacing an equivalent volume of water.
    • The weight of the gas jar with the soil sample is measured again.
    • The specific gravity of the soil can be calculated using the formula: Specific Gravity = (Weight of Oven-Dry Soil) / (Weight of Oven-Dry Soil – Weight of Displaced Water)
It is important to note that the specific gravity of soil may vary depending on the method used, and it is recommended to follow appropriate standards and procedures specified by relevant organizations, such as ASTM or BS, for accurate and reliable results.

Recall different methods for determination of water content of the soil

The water content of soil is a critical parameter for soil characterization and geotechnical engineering. It is determined by measuring the amount of water present in the soil relative to its dry mass. There are several methods for determining the water content of soil, including:
  1. Oven-drying method: This is the most common method used to determine the water content of soil. In this method, a soil sample is weighed before and after drying in an oven at a specified temperature (usually 105°C) until it reaches a constant weight. The difference between the wet and dry weights of the sample gives the water content.
  2. Calcium carbide method: In this method, a soil sample is placed in a sealed container with a known amount of calcium carbide, which reacts with the water in the soil to produce acetylene gas. The pressure of the gas is measured and used to calculate the water content of the soil.
  3. Pycnometer method: In this method, a soil sample is placed in a pycnometer, which is a glass container with a known volume. The pycnometer is filled with water, and the total weight of the pycnometer, soil sample, and water is measured. The weight of the pycnometer and water alone is then subtracted, giving the weight of the soil sample and the water it contains. The water content can be calculated from this weight and the known weight of the dry soil.
  4. Tensiometer method: This method involves inserting a tensiometer probe into the soil, which measures the soil suction (i.e., the force holding water in the soil against gravity). By comparing the soil suction to a calibration curve, the water content of the soil can be determined.
  5. Microwave method: In this method, a soil sample is placed in a microwave oven and heated to a specific temperature. The water content is determined by measuring the loss of weight of the sample as water is evaporated by the microwaves.
Each of these methods has its advantages and limitations, and the choice of method depends on factors such as the type of soil, the accuracy required, and the available equipment and resources. It is important to follow the appropriate standard methods to ensure accurate and reproducible results.

Recall the determination of density of Soil

Density of soil is an important property that can provide information about the composition and structure of soil. There are several methods that can be used to determine the density of soil, including:
  1. The Standard Proctor Compaction Test: This test is used to determine the maximum dry density and optimum moisture content of soil. A soil sample is compacted into a cylindrical mold of a known volume using a standard amount of energy. The density is then calculated by dividing the dry weight of the soil by the volume of the mold.
  2. The Modified Proctor Compaction Test: This test is similar to the standard Proctor test, but it uses a larger amount of energy to compact the soil sample. The modified Proctor test is used to determine the maximum dry density of soil that can be achieved under more strenuous conditions.
  3. The Sand Cone Method: This method is used to determine the in-situ density of soil. A known volume of soil is excavated from the ground, and the weight and volume of the soil is measured. The density is then calculated by dividing the weight by the volume.
  4. The Core Cutter Method: This method is used to determine the in-situ density of soil by taking a soil core sample and measuring the weight and volume. The density is then calculated by dividing the weight by the volume.
  5. The Water Replacement Method: This method is used to determine the in-situ density of soil by measuring the volume of a soil sample before and after it has been submerged in water. The density is then calculated by dividing the weight of the soil by the volume of the soil.
  6. The Gas pycnometer method: This method is used to determine the density of soil by measuring the volume of a soil sample and comparing it to the volume of a gas. This method is useful when the soil sample is too small to measure by other methods.
It is important to note that the density of soil can be affected by factors such as compaction, moisture content, and the presence of impurities. Therefore, it is important to use the appropriate method for the specific type of soil being tested and to ensure that the soil samples are handled and prepared correctly. In summary, determination of density of soil is important in many fields such as Civil engineering, Geotechnical engineering, Agriculture, and Environmental science. It helps engineers and scientists to predict the behavior of soil under various conditions and to design and construct appropriate structures. Different methods used for determination of density of soil will give different results depending on the method used and the condition of the soil.